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Indian Chiefs Who Counseled with General Miles and Settled the Indian War 1891
American Indian Wars 1540-1918
The American Indian Wars (also called Indian Wars) were a range of uprisings,
battles, and wars across various regions of North America in the ongoing struggle of Native Americans to defend their
lands and way of life against encroaching settlers and government policies.
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When did the American Indian Wars begin?
The American Indian Wars begun in 1540 with the Tiguex War, which was fought
between December 1540 and March 1541.
Some historians prefer the Indian Massacre of 1622 as the beginning of the American
Indian Wars, due to the scale of violence and implications for colonial policy. The year 1622 signified a shift from
isolated conflicts to more organized warfare that would characterize much of subsequent American history.
When did the American Indian Wars end?
The American Indian Wars ended in 1918 with the Battle of Bear Valley in Arizona.
Some historians prefer the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890 as the ending point of the
American Indian Wars and the symbolic end of armed Native American resistance to U.S. government policies.
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About the Photograph Above
The inscription reads:
Indian Chiefs
Who Counciled with Gen. Miles and settled the
Indian War.
1. Standing Bull 2. Bear Who looks back running
3. Has the Big
White Horse 4. White Tail. 5. Liver Bear
6. Little Thunder. 7. Bull Dog. 8. High Hawk
9. Lame. 10. Eagle Pipe
Photo and copyright by Grabill, '91
The photographer John C. H. Grabill was active 1887-1892.
You can see this 1891 photograph at the Amon Carter Museum of American Art.
It is also in the Library of Congress.
Speaking of "Gen. Miles"...
General Nelson Appleton Miles was a significant figure in American military history,
known for his roles in the
Civil War
, the Indian Wars, and the
Spanish-American War
.
Born on August 8, 1839, in Westminster, Massachusetts, he began his military career as a volunteer officer during the Civil War,
where he quickly rose through the ranks due to his bravery and leadership skills.
Miles entered the Union Army in 1861 and fought in several key battles, including Antietam and
Chancellorsville, where he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for his gallantry.
By the end of the Civil War, he had achieved the rank of major general of volunteers and served as a military jailer for Confederate
President
Jefferson Davis after the war.
:: General Miles' involvement in the Indian Wars ::
After the Civil War, Miles played a crucial role in the U.S. Army's campaigns against Native American tribes. He is often referred to
as "the idol of the Indian fighters" due to his aggressive tactics and success against various tribes, including the Kiowa, Comanche,
Sioux, and Nez Perce.
Notably, he led a forced march across Montana to intercept
Chief Joseph's Nez Perce band during their retreat towards Canada in 1877.
Miles was also involved in significant confrontations such as the Red River War (1874-75) and was a key
commander during the aftermath of Custer's defeat
at Little Bighorn in 1876. His leadership was instrumental in forcing many tribes onto reservations.
He commanded U.S. forces during the Ghost Dance uprising of 1890, which culminated in the tragic
Wounded Knee Massacre, although he was not directly involved in this event.
In 1895, Miles became the last Commanding General of the U.S. Army before this position transitioned into what is now known as the Chief of Staff
of the Army. He served in this capacity through the Spanish-American War, where he led operations in Puerto Rico and Cuba. He achieved the
rank of lieutenant general in 1900 based on his performance during this war.
Miles's career was marked by controversies and rivalries with other military leaders, including
Theodore Roosevelt. Despite these conflicts, he remained a prominent figure
until his retirement in 1903. He died on May 15, 1925.
Overall, General Nelson A. Miles's contributions to American military history are significant, particularly regarding U.S. policies towards
Native American tribes during a tumultuous period of expansion and conflict. His legacy remains complex due to both his military achievements
and the implications of his actions on Indigenous peoples.
About the Tiguex War of 1540
The Tiguex War, occurring between 1540 and 1541, marked the first named conflict between European settlers and Native Americans in what is now the
southwestern United States. Led by Spanish conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, the expedition sought
to explore and conquer new territories in search of wealth, specifically the fabled Seven Cities of Gold.
The war
primarily involved the Tiwa-speaking Pueblo tribes along the Rio Grande in present-day New Mexico, particularly targeting twelve pueblos known
collectively as Tiguex. The conflict was ignited by escalating tensions due to Spanish demands for food and shelter, as well as violent incidents
including assaults on Native women, which prompted retaliatory actions from the Tiwa.
As Coronado's forces established their presence in the region, they faced increasing resistance from the Tiwa. In December 1540, after a series
of provocations, Coronado declared a war of "fire and blood." His troops attacked the pueblo of Arenal, resulting in significant casualties among
the Tiwa defenders, including horrific acts such as burning captured warriors alive. The conflict escalated into a siege of another stronghold
called Moho, where after months of fighting and starvation among the defenders, many Tiwa attempted to escape but were largely slaughtered by
Spanish forces.
By March 1541, the war concluded with devastating losses for the Tiwa tribes, who faced not only military defeat but also enslavement for those
who survived. The aftermath left many Tiwa villages abandoned or destroyed, fundamentally altering the social and cultural landscape of Native
American life in New Mexico.
This war set a precedent for subsequent conflicts as Spanish colonization efforts expanded throughout the region.
About the 7 Cities of Gold
The Seven Cities of Gold, also known as the Seven Cities of Cíbola, were legendary locations that captivated
Spanish explorers in the 16th century, promising vast riches and treasures. The myth originated from various sources, including Portuguese legends
about seven cities founded on an island called Antillia.
These tales were further fueled by reports from shipwreck survivors of the Narváez expedition, particularly
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, who recounted stories of wealthy cities encountered during his travels through
Native American territories in present-day Texas and Mexico.
In 1539, these legends prompted Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza to send a reconnaissance mission led by Franciscan
friar Marcos de Niza, who claimed to have seen the cities from a distance. His reports ignited further expeditions,
most notably that of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado in 1540, who sought to find these fabled cities. However, Coronado's journey revealed only modest
Zuni pueblos in New Mexico rather than the gold-laden cities he anticipated.
About the Indian Massacre of 1622
The Indian Massacre of 1622 occurred on March 22, 1622, when the Powhatan Confederacy, led by Chief Opechancanough,
launched a coordinated attack against English settlers in Virginia. This well-planned assault targeted several settlements along the James River and
resulted in the deaths of approximately 347 colonists, nearly a quarter of the English population in the colony at that time.
The attackers entered homes under the guise of friendship, often bringing food, before seizing weapons and tools to kill the inhabitants. The massacre
was characterized by its brutality, with many families slaughtered and homes set ablaze.
The motivations behind the massacre stemmed from ongoing tensions due to colonial encroachment on Powhatan lands and years of grievances over theft and
mistreatment by the settlers. The attack marked a significant turning point in relations between Native Americans and English colonists, leading to
the Second Anglo-Powhatan War.
In the aftermath, the English viewed the incident as justification for further military action against Native tribes, resulting in increased violence and
conflict in the region as settlers sought to expand their territory.
About the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890
The Wounded Knee Massacre, occurring on December 29, 1890, was a tragic event in which U.S. Army troops killed approximately 150 to 300 Lakota men, women,
and children near Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. The massacre was part of the U.S. government's efforts to suppress the
Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual revival among Native Americans that was perceived as a threat by settlers and
authorities.
Tensions escalated when a detachment of the 7th Cavalry attempted to disarm the Lakota camp. A gunshot—whether accidental or intentional—triggered a
chaotic response from the soldiers, who opened fire on the encamped Lakota.
The aftermath of the massacre left many dead and wounded, with bodies scattered over a wide area. The event marked the end of armed Native American
resistance to U.S. expansion and was one of the last significant conflicts between Native Americans and U.S. forces.
In the years following, Wounded Knee became a symbol of the injustices faced by Native Americans and has since been commemorated as a site of
remembrance for those who lost their lives during this tragic episode in American history.
Summary of the American Indian Wars
To recap, the American Indian Wars were a series of conflicts between Native American tribes and European settlers, and later the U.S. government, from
the 16th century to the early 20th century.
These wars arose primarily from disputes over land, resources, and the imposition of U.S. policies that sought to displace Indigenous peoples from their
ancestral territories.
Notable conflicts include King Philip's War, the Pequot War,
the Sioux Wars, and culminated in events like the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890.
The wars were characterized by
violent confrontations and significant loss of life on both sides, ultimately leading to the forced relocation of many Native American tribes to
reservations and a profound impact on Indigenous cultures across North America.
Related Maps and Links
Here is the Native Americans - Map List
See also
Pontiac War.
And maybe
American Timeline.
More History
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